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现代大学英语精读第四册 6a

时间:2011-01-05 06:10来源:互联网 提供网友:tianshun   字体: [ ]
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  Groundless Beliefs
In future we are going to follow the practice----until it become a habit ----of classifying proposition s according to their grounds .Of every statement we come across, we shall ask :"HOW DO WE KONW THAT?WHAT REASON HAVE WE FOR BELIEVING THAT?ON WHAT GROUNG IS THAT STATEMENT BASED?" Probably we shall be astonished at the number of propositions met with in everyday life which we shall find it necessary to class as groundless. They rest upon mere1 tradition, or on somebody’s bare assertion unsupported by even a show of proof......
It may be a belief which we originally accepted as a result of simple "suggestion" and we have continued to hold it ever since. It has now become one of our regular habits of thought .Perhaps somebody -somewhere-sometime told us a certain thing, and quite uncritically we accepted and believed it. Perhaps it was way back in our early childhood---before we had even developed the power of questioning anything that might be told to us .Many of our strongest convictions were established then;and now ,in about life, we find it most difficult even to question their truth. They seem to us "obviously" true.
But if the staunchest Rome Catholic and the staunchest Presbyterian ha been exchanged when infants, and if they had been brought up with home and all other influences reversed we can have very little doubt what the result would have been. It is consistent with all our knowledge of psychology2 to conclude that each would have grown up holding exactly the opposite beliefs to those he holds now...and each would then have left as sure of the truth of his opinion as he now feels---of truth of the opposite opinion. The same thing is true, of course, of many beliefs other than those of a religious nature. If we had grown up in a community where polygamy or head-hunting or infanticide, or gladiatorial fighting, or duelling, was regarded as the normal and natural thing---then we should have grown up to regard it as "obviously" natural and perfectly3 moral and proper. If an English baby had been adopted and brought up in a German home, and had grown up with no knowledge that his parents were English ,all the sentiments and beliefs of that person would be "German" and not "English." Many of our beliefs---many of our most deeply-rooted and fundamental convictions---are held simply as a results of the fact that we happen to have been "brought up” to them.
Of course we do not cease, when we cease to be children, to adopt new beliefs on mere suggestion. We continue doing it, more or less unconsciously all our lives: hence, to take only the most striking examples, the enormous influence of newspapers and the effectiveness of skilful4 advertising5. Much of what passes as such is not, strictly6, thinking at all. It is the mere “parroting” of ideas picked up by chance and adopted as our own without question. Most people, most of the time, are mere parrots. But as we leave childhood, we tend to accept only such new ideas as fit in with the ideas we already hold; and all conflicting ideas seem to us “obviously” absurd.
Propositions that are accepted simply because “everybody says no,” must be classed under the same heading. The dogma may not be that of any particular individual: it may be a dogmatic statement which has been passed from one person to another, from generation to generation, perhaps for hundreds-perhaps for thousands-of years. It may be part of the traditional belief of the people or the race. In that case, it is part of our social inheritance from some period in the past. But we should fully7 face the fact that beliefs which are merely inherited from the past must have originated at a time when men knew much less than they know today. So the fact a belief is “old” is no argument in its favour.
We need especially to be on our guard when we come across propositions which seem to be “obviously” true.
When we find ourselves entertaining an opinion about which there is a feeling that even to enquire8 into it would be absurd, unnecessary, undesirable9, or wicked-we may know that that opinion is a non-rational one.
When we are tempted10 to say that any general truth is so “obvious” that it would be absurd even to question it, we should remember that the whole history of the development of human thought has been full of cases of such “obvious truths” breaking down when examined in the light of increasing knowledge and reason. For instance, for ages nothing could have seemed more obvious, more utterly11 beyond question than the proposition that slavery was natural, reasonable, necessary, and right. Some kinds of men were “obviously” “slaves by nature.” To doubt it was impossible.
Again for more than two thousands years, it was “impossible to conceive” the planets as moving in paths other than circles. The circle was “obviously” the perfect figure; and so it was “natural” and “inevitable” to suppose that the planets moved in circles. The age-long struggle of the greatest intellects in the world to shake off that assumption is one of the marvels12 of history.
It was formerly13 “obvious” that the heart-and not the brain-was the organ of consciousness. To most people today it seems equally “obvious” that we think with our brains. Many modern persons find it very difficult to credit the fact that men can ever have supposed otherwise. Yet-they did.
That the earth must be flat, formerly seemed so obvious and self-evident that the very suggestion of any other possibility would have been-and was-regarded as a joke.
It was for two thousand years “taken for granted” as “obvious” that a heavy weight must fall faster than a light one. An assumed or dogmatic proposition which had been universally accepted as “obvious”; and which, when challenged, was supported by reference to a dogma of Aristotle. Until Galileo actually demonstrated the contrary, nothing could have seemed more beyond possibility or doubt.
Propositions which are accepted blindly, without question the grounds of mere assumption or dogma, need to be frankly14 recognized as such. Progress in human thought seems to consist mainly in getting rid of such ideas.
Other beliefs are held through self-interest. Modern psychology leaves us no room for doubt on this point. We adopt and cling to some beliefs because-or partly because-the world to be able to recognize this in himself. Indeed, he would probably be highly plainly. It would be quite wrong to attribute all opinions-even political opinions-to self-interest. But it would be equally wrong to deny that this is one potent15 factor.
“Self-interest” is to be understood first in the ordinary sense, as referring to a man’s way of earning his livelihood16 and acquiring wealth. But we may extend the term to cover also his interest in social position; popularity with his fellows; the respect and goodwill17 of those whose respect and goodwill he values. It covers his interest in his own career; in whatever prestige he enjoys as one of the leaders-or at least as a valued supporter-of some movement or institution, dome18 religious body, some other kind of society or group. There is many a man who is unconsciously compelled to cling to a belief because he is a “somebody” in some circle-and if he were to abandon that belief, he would find himself nobody at all.
Putting it broadly, we should always suspect any of our opinions when we recognize that our happiness depends, directly or indirectly19, upon our continuing to hold them-when we might lose anything, material or otherwise, by changing our opinion.
Somewhat similar is the acceptance of an opinion through the desire-probably not recognized by the person concerned-to justify20 his own nature, his own position, or his own behaviour. The coward can so easily adopt a philosophy which seems to justify cowardice-though, of course, “cowardice” is not the name he gives it! The lazy and bungling21 person can adopt a set of opinions which prove to his satisfaction that “the grapes are sour”-the “grapes” being the rewards that more energetic and competent men can win.
Many groundless opinions are held through sentimental22 associations. The thought is associated with memories-pleasant or unpleasant as the case may be –of particular persons who held similar opinions. It is found that many a man who in childhood was hostile to his father, in after life is always prejudiced against whatever opinions his father used to express. And conversely in the case of one who has pleasant recollections of his father, his mother, a teacher perhaps, or some other person who played a big part in his early life.
In adult life, as we have often observed, a bitter quarrel may change a man’s opinion entirely23. Antagonism24 to a man usually produces some antagonism to his opinions; and the bitterness felt against the man usually spreads to the idea for which he stands. What keen satisfaction we find in belittling25 the opinions, or attacking the opinions, of somebody of whom we are jealous, or of somebody against whom we bear a grudge26! But, on the other hand, it is equally true that friendly feelings to a man have an effect in disposing us to feel friendly to his views.
Other opinions again are determined27 by what we may best called Fashion. To take one example: how largely our opinions on the merits of certain authors, or poets, or composers, are dictated28 merely by fashion! But the effect of fashion is very much wider than that: we trace it almost everywhere, in every field of thought. We tend very strongly to feel and to believe as others are feeling and believing. Not all others, perhaps; but others of our own set.
But we do not, as a rule, continue all our lives changing our sentiments and opinions with every change of fashion. Sooner or later our minds become fixed29. Many a man holds his opinions today-because they happened to be in fashion ten, twenty, thirty, forty, or fifty years ago.
Once an opinion is accepted, whatever be the cause of its acceptance, it has a strong tendency to persist. Every time we think along a particular thought-pattern, makes it easier for us to think the same way again. It is quite legitimate30 to speak of “habits” of thought. The “brain path” becomes so well worn; the pattern of brain-centres becomes so well connected up by continual use, that nerve current finds a route of practically no resistance, and so it always takes almost exactly the same course.
We all know the person who has a string of stock anecdotes32. We all know too the person who has certain stock arguments and opinions which he expresses, almost in the same words, whenever he receives the “cue.” We all know men and women whose minds work like gramophones. Put them on to the “record” about the good old days; or about prohibition33; or about the wicked capitalist; or about the lazy and improvident34 workers; or about the country going to the dogs; or about the modern girl; or some long, tedious anecdote31 about what I said to him, and what he said to me, and I said … and he said … and then I told him straight …! All we have to do is to start him off-and nothing on earth can stop him-until the “record” has run out!
The same thing is true of opinions and beliefs of all kinds of. After they have been held a certain length of time, they become, as it were, so stamped in by continual use that it is almost impossible now to change them. While we are young, we are continually taking in new ideas, altering our thought-patterns, “making up our minds” afresh. As we grow older, we become less and less able to accept any new idea which will not fit in with our existing thought-pattern. Thus we become, in James’s term, Old Fogeys. Sometimes our thought-patterns set while we are still quite young. In a few rare cases they remain open or alterable even into old age. An old fogey may have become such at seventeen-or seventy. “I am almost afraid to say so (says James), but I believe that in the majority of human beings Old Fogeyism begins at about the age of twenty-five.”
Yet when full allowance has been made for all these non-rational factors in the determination of opinion, there remains-not in all minds, not in most minds, but in some-a desire to discover the facts; to think things out in a clear and rational way; to get at the truth at all costs, whatever it may turn out to be! For such minds this … is written.


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1 mere rC1xE     
adj.纯粹的;仅仅,只不过
参考例句:
  • That is a mere repetition of what you said before.那不过是重复了你以前讲的话。
  • It's a mere waste of time waiting any longer.再等下去纯粹是浪费时间。
2 psychology U0Wze     
n.心理,心理学,心理状态
参考例句:
  • She has a background in child psychology.她受过儿童心理学的教育。
  • He studied philosophy and psychology at Cambridge.他在剑桥大学学习哲学和心理学。
3 perfectly 8Mzxb     
adv.完美地,无可非议地,彻底地
参考例句:
  • The witnesses were each perfectly certain of what they said.证人们个个对自己所说的话十分肯定。
  • Everything that we're doing is all perfectly above board.我们做的每件事情都是光明正大的。
4 skilful 8i2zDY     
(=skillful)adj.灵巧的,熟练的
参考例句:
  • The more you practise,the more skilful you'll become.练习的次数越多,熟练的程度越高。
  • He's not very skilful with his chopsticks.他用筷子不大熟练。
5 advertising 1zjzi3     
n.广告业;广告活动 a.广告的;广告业务的
参考例句:
  • Can you give me any advice on getting into advertising? 你能指点我如何涉足广告业吗?
  • The advertising campaign is aimed primarily at young people. 这个广告宣传运动主要是针对年轻人的。
6 strictly GtNwe     
adv.严厉地,严格地;严密地
参考例句:
  • His doctor is dieting him strictly.他的医生严格规定他的饮食。
  • The guests were seated strictly in order of precedence.客人严格按照地位高低就座。
7 fully Gfuzd     
adv.完全地,全部地,彻底地;充分地
参考例句:
  • The doctor asked me to breathe in,then to breathe out fully.医生让我先吸气,然后全部呼出。
  • They soon became fully integrated into the local community.他们很快就完全融入了当地人的圈子。
8 enquire 2j5zK     
v.打听,询问;调查,查问
参考例句:
  • She wrote to enquire the cause of the delay.她只得写信去询问拖延的理由。
  • We will enquire into the matter.我们将调查这事。
9 undesirable zp0yb     
adj.不受欢迎的,不良的,不合意的,讨厌的;n.不受欢迎的人,不良分子
参考例句:
  • They are the undesirable elements among the employees.他们是雇员中的不良分子。
  • Certain chemicals can induce undesirable changes in the nervous system.有些化学物质能在神经系统中引起不良变化。
10 tempted b0182e969d369add1b9ce2353d3c6ad6     
v.怂恿(某人)干不正当的事;冒…的险(tempt的过去分词)
参考例句:
  • I was sorely tempted to complain, but I didn't. 我极想发牢骚,但还是没开口。
  • I was tempted by the dessert menu. 甜食菜单馋得我垂涎欲滴。
11 utterly ZfpzM1     
adv.完全地,绝对地
参考例句:
  • Utterly devoted to the people,he gave his life in saving his patients.他忠于人民,把毕生精力用于挽救患者的生命。
  • I was utterly ravished by the way she smiled.她的微笑使我完全陶醉了。
12 marvels 029fcce896f8a250d9ae56bf8129422d     
n.奇迹( marvel的名词复数 );令人惊奇的事物(或事例);不平凡的成果;成就v.惊奇,对…感到惊奇( marvel的第三人称单数 )
参考例句:
  • The doctor's treatment has worked marvels : the patient has recovered completely. 该医生妙手回春,病人已完全康复。 来自辞典例句
  • Nevertheless he revels in a catalogue of marvels. 可他还是兴致勃勃地罗列了一堆怪诞不经的事物。 来自辞典例句
13 formerly ni3x9     
adv.从前,以前
参考例句:
  • We now enjoy these comforts of which formerly we had only heard.我们现在享受到了过去只是听说过的那些舒适条件。
  • This boat was formerly used on the rivers of China.这船从前航行在中国内河里。
14 frankly fsXzcf     
adv.坦白地,直率地;坦率地说
参考例句:
  • To speak frankly, I don't like the idea at all.老实说,我一点也不赞成这个主意。
  • Frankly speaking, I'm not opposed to reform.坦率地说,我不反对改革。
15 potent C1uzk     
adj.强有力的,有权势的;有效力的
参考例句:
  • The medicine had a potent effect on your disease.这药物对你的病疗效很大。
  • We must account of his potent influence.我们必须考虑他的强有力的影响。
16 livelihood sppzWF     
n.生计,谋生之道
参考例句:
  • Appropriate arrangements will be made for their work and livelihood.他们的工作和生活会得到妥善安排。
  • My father gained a bare livelihood of family by his own hands.父亲靠自己的双手勉强维持家计。
17 goodwill 4fuxm     
n.善意,亲善,信誉,声誉
参考例句:
  • His heart is full of goodwill to all men.他心里对所有人都充满着爱心。
  • We paid £10,000 for the shop,and £2000 for its goodwill.我们用一万英镑买下了这家商店,两千英镑买下了它的信誉。
18 dome 7s2xC     
n.圆屋顶,拱顶
参考例句:
  • The dome was supported by white marble columns.圆顶由白色大理石柱支撑着。
  • They formed the dome with the tree's branches.他们用树枝搭成圆屋顶。
19 indirectly a8UxR     
adv.间接地,不直接了当地
参考例句:
  • I heard the news indirectly.这消息我是间接听来的。
  • They were approached indirectly through an intermediary.通过一位中间人,他们进行了间接接触。
20 justify j3DxR     
vt.证明…正当(或有理),为…辩护
参考例句:
  • He tried to justify his absence with lame excuses.他想用站不住脚的借口为自己的缺席辩解。
  • Can you justify your rude behavior to me?你能向我证明你的粗野行为是有道理的吗?
21 bungling 9a4ae404ac9d9a615bfdbdf0d4e87632     
adj.笨拙的,粗劣的v.搞糟,完不成( bungle的现在分词 );笨手笨脚地做;失败;完不成
参考例句:
  • You can't do a thing without bungling it. 你做事总是笨手笨脚。 来自《简明英汉词典》
  • 'Enough, too,' retorted George. 'We'll all swing and sundry for your bungling.' “还不够吗?”乔治反问道,“就因为你乱指挥,我们都得荡秋千,被日头晒干。” 来自英汉文学 - 金银岛
22 sentimental dDuzS     
adj.多愁善感的,感伤的
参考例句:
  • She's a sentimental woman who believes marriage comes by destiny.她是多愁善感的人,她相信姻缘命中注定。
  • We were deeply touched by the sentimental movie.我们深深被那感伤的电影所感动。
23 entirely entirely     
ad.全部地,完整地;完全地,彻底地
参考例句:
  • The fire was entirely caused by their neglect of duty. 那场火灾完全是由于他们失职而引起的。
  • His life was entirely given up to the educational work. 他的一生统统献给了教育工作。
24 antagonism bwHzL     
n.对抗,敌对,对立
参考例句:
  • People did not feel a strong antagonism for established policy.人们没有对既定方针产生强烈反应。
  • There is still much antagonism between trades unions and the oil companies.工会和石油公司之间仍然存在着相当大的敌意。
25 belittling f2b71888b429fab9345a28d38fc35bfe     
使显得微小,轻视,贬低( belittle的现在分词 )
参考例句:
  • We must be realistic in our self-estimation, neither being conceited nor belittling ourselves. 我们对自己的估计应该实事求是, 不要自高自大,也不要妄自菲薄。
  • I find it belittling to be criticized by someone so much younger than me. 有个比我年轻许多的人批评了我,我觉得是小看了我。
26 grudge hedzG     
n.不满,怨恨,妒嫉;vt.勉强给,不情愿做
参考例句:
  • I grudge paying so much for such inferior goods.我不愿花这么多钱买次品。
  • I do not grudge him his success.我不嫉妒他的成功。
27 determined duszmP     
adj.坚定的;有决心的
参考例句:
  • I have determined on going to Tibet after graduation.我已决定毕业后去西藏。
  • He determined to view the rooms behind the office.他决定查看一下办公室后面的房间。
28 dictated aa4dc65f69c81352fa034c36d66908ec     
v.大声讲或读( dictate的过去式和过去分词 );口授;支配;摆布
参考例句:
  • He dictated a letter to his secretary. 他向秘书口授信稿。
  • No person of a strong character likes to be dictated to. 没有一个个性强的人愿受人使唤。 来自《简明英汉词典》
29 fixed JsKzzj     
adj.固定的,不变的,准备好的;(计算机)固定的
参考例句:
  • Have you two fixed on a date for the wedding yet?你们俩选定婚期了吗?
  • Once the aim is fixed,we should not change it arbitrarily.目标一旦确定,我们就不应该随意改变。
30 legitimate L9ZzJ     
adj.合法的,合理的,合乎逻辑的;v.使合法
参考例句:
  • Sickness is a legitimate reason for asking for leave.生病是请假的一个正当的理由。
  • That's a perfectly legitimate fear.怀有这种恐惧完全在情理之中。
31 anecdote 7wRzd     
n.轶事,趣闻,短故事
参考例句:
  • He departed from the text to tell an anecdote.他偏离课文讲起了一则轶事。
  • It had never been more than a family anecdote.那不过是个家庭趣谈罢了。
32 anecdotes anecdotes     
n.掌故,趣闻,轶事( anecdote的名词复数 )
参考例句:
  • amusing anecdotes about his brief career as an actor 关于他短暂演员生涯的趣闻逸事
  • He related several anecdotes about his first years as a congressman. 他讲述自己初任议员那几年的几则轶事。 来自《简明英汉词典》
33 prohibition 7Rqxw     
n.禁止;禁令,禁律
参考例句:
  • The prohibition against drunken driving will save many lives.禁止酒后开车将会减少许多死亡事故。
  • They voted in favour of the prohibition of smoking in public areas.他们投票赞成禁止在公共场所吸烟。
34 improvident nybyW     
adj.不顾将来的,不节俭的,无远见的
参考例句:
  • Her improvident speech at the meeting has set a stone rolling.她在会上的发言缺乏远见,已产生严重后果。
  • He must bear the consequences of his improvident action.他必须对自己挥霍浪费所造成的后果负责。
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